Graph — the series
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Counting on a graph
An instrumented array counts comparisons, swaps, reads and writes, and none of those is what a graph algorithm spends its time on. Three new primitives are needed — an adjacency scanned, a vertex first reached, an edge relaxed — and once they exist, breadth-first and depth-first search turn out to be the same algorithm by every count kept on arrays.
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Two parameters, one bound, no order
With one size parameter the candidate classes are ordered — n beats n log n beats n², always, and comparing two bounds is reading them. With two, E log V and V² have no order at all, and which one is smaller is a property of the graph. Sweeping V at fixed degree and at fixed density are different experiments, and the same algorithm fits different classes in the two.
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The constant that is practically constant
Everywhere else on this site the class is honest and the constant is hiding something. Union–find is the exact inverse — its bound is formally not constant, its growth term reaches four at n = 2,048 and stays there for every input anyone will ever run, and the measured path length is flat at 0.92 pointer hops across a two-hundred-fold range of n.
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The queue decides the class, and the pseudocode does not name it
Dijkstra's algorithm is eleven lines of pseudocode with a priority queue in the middle of them. Which queue is not stated, and it is the difference between 56,973 units of work and 2,118,656 on the same graph. Two of the three queues here also fail to fit the class they are famous for, in a regime each.
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A list and a block of memory
The same traversal, over the same graph, examining the same edges in the same order, laid out two ways. Twelve thousand two hundred and eighty-eight edge slots either way; 11,812 modelled cache misses against 3,258. This is the site's largest gap between two counts of one run, and it exists because one of the layouts is a pointer chase and the other is a sweep.
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The bound with a precondition
Bellman–Ford is O(V·E), and on a graph of 2,048 vertices it stops after seven passes of the 2,047 the bound allows — a factor of 289 between the bound and the run. Dijkstra is faster and returns a wrong answer on four vertices if one arc is negative. Both facts are about the same clause: the qualifier at the end of the sentence.
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The precondition that removes the queue
Dijkstra maintains a priority queue to discover which vertex is safe to finalise next, and on a directed acyclic graph 65% of its counted work goes into that queue. The order it is discovering is already known. Relaxing in topological order makes exactly one relaxation per arc — 1,536 arcs, 1,536 relaxations — with no queue at all, and negative weights are fine.
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Two passes or one, and what the second one costs
Kosaraju's algorithm and Tarjan's find the same strongly connected components of the same graph, in the same class, and one of them examines three times as many arcs as the other. The extra pass everybody counts is not where the difference is — building the reversed graph is, and no statement of "two depth-first passes" mentions it.
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The precondition on a function the caller writes
Dijkstra expands 1,582 cells to find a path of 98 across a fifty-square grid. The same loop, with the straight-line distance to the goal added to each key, expands 405 and finds the same 98. The estimate has to be a function the caller supplies, and the guarantee holds only while that function never overestimates — a condition on somebody else's code, not on the graph.
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Two parameters are not enough either
Two graphs on 1,024 vertices with 3,072 edges each — identical in both numbers every bound in this field is written in. Enumerating every pair of neighbours of every vertex costs 18,480 examinations on one and 42,076 on the other. The quantity that separates them is a third parameter, it is computable in linear time, and it appears in no statement of the problem.
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A graph is as hard as its largest cycle
Negative arcs rule out Dijkstra's algorithm and leave Bellman–Ford, which on a thousand vertices does three million units of work. Stopping it when a pass changes nothing brings that to 78,496. Finding the strongly connected components first and running it inside each one brings it to 38,549 — and to a quarter of the early-exit cost when the components are small, because every cycle lives inside one.
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An estimate borrowed from an easier problem
On a grid where every step costs one, the straight-line distance to the goal cuts a search from 543 cells to 325. On terrain where steps cost between one and nine it cuts 1,572 to 1,550, because it still believes every step costs one. Four exact distance tables, computed once, cut the same search to 252 — and cost 6,328 reads to build, so they pay for themselves on the fifth query.
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An estimate is a reweighting
Reprice every arc by the estimate's drop across it and run plain Dijkstra, and it expands the same 325 cells A* does, in the same order, because the two are one algorithm. Replace the estimate with one that is still never too high but drops too fast between neighbours, and 215 arcs go below zero — and on a stated grid the search that refuses to reopen a finished cell returns a path of 178 where the shortest is 169.
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Where two searches should stop
Search from both ends of a shortest-path query at once and the two frontiers meet somewhere in the middle, having expanded about two thirds of what one search would. Stop at the first vertex both searches have finished, and on five of forty weighted grids the path returned is longer than the shortest. The rule that is always right stops on a different condition, and on one of those grids it also stops sooner.
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A bound right for the wrong reason
Orient every edge of a graph towards its higher-degree endpoint and count triangles among out-neighbours, and the work is O(E·d), where d is the graph's degeneracy. The usual reason given is that the orientation keeps every out-degree at most d. On a graph of 1,024 vertices with degeneracy four, 136 vertices have more than four out-neighbours and one has seven. The bound survives by a different argument, and the orientation that does keep every out-degree at most d does less work.
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Two estimates that must agree
Run A* from both ends of a query at once, each search guided by its own straight-line estimate, and stop by the rule that is correct for two-ended Dijkstra. On 40 weighted grids it expands 1,002 cells on average and returns a longer path than the shortest on 12 of them. Give both searches one potential, half of one estimate minus half of the other, and the same rule is correct again — on all 40 grids, for 1,041 cells. Two estimates that measure different things cannot share a stopping rule until they are made to measure the same thing.
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One Bellman–Ford buys every Dijkstra
A directed graph of 256 vertices with a third of its arcs negative needs shortest paths between every pair. Running Bellman–Ford from every source costs 25.8 million counted operations on the densest graph drawn; running it once, repricing every arc by what it found, and then running Dijkstra from every source costs 13.1 million, and the one Bellman–Ford is under one per cent of that. Floyd–Warshall's 16.8 million is never the cheapest count on the plate. On the sparsest graphs the repeated Bellman–Ford wins, because its early exit makes nine passes rather than 255.
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Where the landmarks stand
Four tables of exact distances, each from a chosen cell, turn a straight-line estimate that barely helps on rough terrain into one that cuts a search by a factor of six. Averaged over 1,200 queries on eight maps, the same four tables expand 126 cells a query when their cells are the map's corners and 423 when they are near its centre. The standard choice, each landmark as far as possible from the ones before, expands 141 and loses to the corners on all eight maps. Moving four landmarks to the right places buys more than doubling their number.
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What the queries know that the map does not
A greedy rule that chooses landmark cells by rerunning a sample of past queries needs two hundred of them to draw level with a rule that reads only the map — and what it finally chooses, on map after map, is the four corners. Give the queries a destination instead of scattering them, and twenty are enough to beat the corners by 29% on eight maps out of eight. A query log is worth reading exactly to the extent that it is not uniform.
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A stop that is correct and never sooner
A two-ended search can stop when the two frontiers' keys together reach the best route found, and it can also stop when either frontier's own estimate reaches it alone. Both rules are safe, so a search may use whichever fires first. On forty weighted grids the second never fires: at the moment the first one stops the search, the larger of the two own-keys stands at 64% of the route. The extra rule costs 60% more counted work and a second priority queue to find that out.
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How long a reweighting stays true
Johnson's one Bellman–Ford run costs under one per cent of an all-pairs computation because it is divided over every source. Asked one query at a time it is divided over nothing, and it still repays itself after 2.7 queries — because the preparation is one Bellman–Ford and every query saves a third of another. What decides the trade is not the query count but whether the graph holds still: at half a per cent of arcs redrawn between queries the stored potential is worth exactly nothing, and its life is geometric at a per-arc failure rate of 6.6%.
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A potential mended where it broke
A stored reweighting on a 256-vertex graph with negative arcs costs 10,045 relaxations to rebuild, and rebuilding it every time an update breaks it stops paying once half a per cent of arcs change between queries. Mending it from the arcs that broke costs 16 to 442 relaxations instead, and the stored potential stays at two thirds of the per-query cost at every rate of change. When the change is a vertex whose costs all move together, a repair reaches nearly every vertex. It still costs a third of a rebuild.
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A placement after the traffic moved
Four landmarks fitted to twenty queries that all end at one cell expand two thirds of the corners' cells there. Move the destination ten cells and the advantage is gone; move it thirty and the fitted placement expands nearly twice the corners' cells. Choosing again costs 317,000 cells of search — the saving of 8,600 queries — so on streams whose destination drifts, a policy that refits on a counter never beats fitting once and keeping the result, and past a drift of about ten cells nothing fitted beats the corners.
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A refit that changes one landmark
Choosing four landmarks again after traffic moves costs hundreds of thousands of cells of search, and on drifting streams it never paid. Keeping three and re-choosing the fourth costs a fifth as much — 0.19 of a full selection, not the twelfth the earlier page guessed. On drifting streams, refitting on the counter goes from a loss of up to 13% to within 2% of fitting once, and it wins where the destination moves six cells. When the destination jumps, it is the cheapest policy measured, 12% under the corners at one jump in 10,000 queries — unless the jumps come as often as one in 2,500.
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The candidates near where the queries end
Re-choosing one landmark after the traffic moves tried every candidate as the replacement, and most of them could not win. Tried only on the four candidates nearest the new destination, the refit costs 0.085 of a full selection — the twelfth an earlier page guessed — against 0.236, and its placements serve fresh queries within 3% as well. Where the full search's winner lies further away, the refit was barely worth making. A refit that cheap still cannot follow a destination that jumps every 2,500 queries; what holds the counter back was never the refit's price.
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Starting from the corners
A landmark search that refits one landmark when its traffic moves lost to the fixed corners when the destination jumped often, and the accounting blamed the one full selection every refitting policy makes at the start. Starting from the corners instead, and never selecting in full, closes 82% of that gap at one jump in 2,500 queries and is the cheapest policy of all at one in 5,000. It gives the full selection back its advantage when jumps are rare, and on traffic that drifts a step at a time it gives up fitting altogether. Its counter fires when the cost rises, and from the corners concentrated traffic raises nothing: the corners are no worse for it, only no better.
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A refit priced before it is made
A landmark placement that starts at a maze's corners and refits one landmark when a counter sees recent queries getting dearer closed most of its gap on traffic that jumps — and on traffic that drifts it never fired, because from the corners concentrated traffic raises no cost. The chance it missed is cost that could fall. Pricing that chance directly — the current placement on the last twenty queries against four nearby candidates, every two thousand queries, refitting when the estimated saving pays for the refit — costs 120.5 cells a query at one jump in 2,500 against the counter's 128.9 and the corners' 126.8, and 107.4 on a slow drift against 103.3 for a full selection fitted once. It fails where jumps come every thousand queries, and on one stream it stops firing after its placement has aged.
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A horizon the stream can supply
A watch that refits a landmark placement when an estimated saving pays lost where traffic jumped every thousand queries, because its estimate assumed each saving would last a whole window. The horizon proposed to correct it, learned from the intervals between the watch's own refits, is the window every time: the watch looks once a window, so its refits are never closer together than one. A horizon learned from the traffic instead — how long it stays within ten cells of one destination — is safe on every stream and saves 3.4% at one jump in 2,500. At one in 1,000 it reaches 150.7 cells a query against the corners' 142.7, and a horizon read from the future only ties them. At that pace the looking costs what the refits save.
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A watch that looks less
A landmark watch that refits when an estimated saving pays loses to the plain corners when traffic jumps every thousand queries, because its looking costs more than its refits save. Using its learned horizon to look less often there — doubling the interval when the horizon falls below half of it, halving it when the horizon comes back — was predicted to tie the corners at that pace and cost nothing elsewhere. It ties nothing: 150.5 cells a query against the corners' 142.7, since the looks it skips are the looks that found the chances. And at one jump in 2,500, where the watch had won, it loses by twenty cells, because the rule cannot come back down. Halving needs a horizon as long as the stretched interval, and at 8,000 queries no stream here supplies one. A two-state rule that can come back does better and still loses at both paces. The looking was never the waste; at one jump in 1,000 there is nothing to watch for.